The Biblical Definition of Targum

What is a Targum?

A Targum served as an interpretive bridge between Hebrew Scripture and Aramaic-speaking Jewish communities, preserving and explicating biblical texts in the lingua franca of the ancient Near East.

The term refers to both translations and paraphrases of the Hebrew Bible rendered into Aramaic, a language widely used from the 3rd century BCE to the 2nd century CE. Biblical books like Daniel (2:4) and Ezra (4:7) contain Aramaic passages, illustrating the linguistic context in which Targums emerged. These interpretations were employed in synagogues for public reading and by scholars to clarify Hebrew idioms or theological nuances.

The proliferation of Aramaic as a common language following Alexander the Great’s conquests necessitated such adaptations. This historical backdrop naturally leads to examining when these interpretive traditions first began to crystallize into formal written works.

Historical Context and Purpose

The Targums emerged as formal interpretive traditions in synagogues to address the linguistic and cultural needs of Aramaic-speaking Jewish communities during the Hellenistic and Roman periods.

Targums were central to synagogue worship, where they accompanied public Hebrew readings to ensure congregational comprehension. Their liturgical use is evident in passages like Daniel 2:4, where Aramaic script appears mid-text, and Ezra 4:7, which contains Aramaic administrative records, reflecting the language’s prominence. These translations also functioned as pedagogical tools, clarifying Hebrew idioms and theological concepts for non-expert audiences.

Unlike the Septuagint, which translated the Hebrew Bible into Greek for Hellenistic Jews, Targums preserved the Hebrew text’s structure while rendering its meaning into Aramaic. Scholars debate whether Targums remained neutral linguistic aids or introduced theological emphases, as some paraphrases reflect later rabbinic interpretations. This duality underscores their role as both practical translations and windows into evolving Jewish thought, setting the stage for examining their textual variations and doctrinal implications in subsequent discussions.

Textual and Theological Contributions

The Targums not only facilitated scriptural accessibility but also preserved interpretive traditions that reveal the theological priorities of ancient Jewish communities.

These paraphrases often reflect Pharisaic emphases, such as in Targum Onkelos' reinterpretation of divine names to align with later rabbinic monotheism, while others, like Targum Jonathan, incorporate Hellenistic Jewish allegorizing evident in Daniel 2:4’s Aramaic context. Their expansions on Hebrew idioms (e.g., Ezra 4:7’s administrative language) clarify cultural references for Aramaic speakers, yet also encode theological perspectives, such as reimagining Israelite kings as pious figures. By embedding these interpretations into synagogue practice, Targums became foundational texts for Jewish liturgy and education, shaping later rabbinic exegesis.

Scholars trace direct influences of Targums on rabbinic literature, where phrases and concepts from Targumic paraphrases appear in Midrashic collections and Talmudic debates.

Modern biblical scholarship leverages Targums to reconstruct early Jewish hermeneutics, offering insights into how communities like the Pharisees interpreted Scripture. For instance, Targumic expansions on Levitical laws (e.g., Leviticus 19:18) shed light on the development of the Golden Rule in rabbinic ethics. These texts also help resolve ambiguities in the Hebrew Bible, providing a lens into the cultural and theological dynamics of the Second Temple period, a topic warranting deeper exploration in the following section.

How to Read Targums Correctly

To engage with Targums effectively, readers should adopt three key principles that balance linguistic fidelity, theological insight, and historical awareness.

First, read Targums alongside the original Hebrew text to identify interpretive choices, such as how Targum Onkelos rephrases Leviticus 19:18 to emphasize ethical reciprocity. Second, note theological expansions like Targum Neofiti’s addition of 'the Holy Spirit' in Daniel 2:4, where the verse states, 'In the first year of Nebuchadnezzar, I, Daniel, lifted up my eyes and looked toward the land of Chaldea. In the night visions, the word came to me.' Third, consider the historical context of Aramaic-speaking communities, as seen in Ezra 4:7’s Aramaic administrative records, rather than projecting modern assumptions onto ancient interpretations.

These principles help uncover how Targums functioned as both linguistic tools and theological commentaries. Understanding this dual role prepares readers to explore their lasting impact on Jewish and Christian exegesis.

Going Deeper

To deepen your understanding of Targums, consider examining Targum Onkelos alongside the Masoretic Text for Genesis 1:1, which offers insights into interpretive choices and theological emphases.

For example, comparing Onkelos’ Aramaic rendering of ‘In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth’ with the Hebrew original reveals nuances in translation and tradition. Engaging with resources like 'The Targum Onkelos on the Pentateuch' or scholarly articles on Targumic theology can further illuminate these dynamics.